Perfil de rendimiento de regatistas de élite de clase ILCA. Diferencias entre hombres y mujeres / Performance profile for ILCA class elite sailors. Differences between men and women

En la vela deportiva, tres son los pilares fundamentales del rendimiento de los regatistas de vela ligera (condición física, capacidad cognitiva y material). Uno de los momentos determinantes en una regata de vela ligera individual es la navegaciónen el rumbo de ceñida, ya que requiere de los regatistas una alta demanda física, para llevar la embarcación plana y tomarlas mejores decisiones según las condiciones tácticas de la regata. El objetivo de la investigación es (i) analizar el rendimientode regatistas de élite sobre la posición de sacar cuerpo en una situación dinámica de navegación virtual. (ii) medir la fatigamuscular del tren inferior en la acción de sacar cuerpo. La muestra fueron 10 regatistas de la clase Ilca de navegación ypertenecientes a los equipos olímpicos de las selecciones nacionales de Noruega, México y España, 6 de ellos hombres(Medad =31,67, SDedad =6,861) y 4 mujeres, (Medad =30,50, SDedad =4,655). El protocolo de fatiga estuvo compuesto por un testestático y un test dinámico de la posición de sacar cuerpo. Ambos test miden el esfuerzo de los regatistas hasta la fatigaextrema o hasta perder la posición. El test se realizó en el simular de vela vSail-Trainer®, el cual permite reproducir condicionesreales de navegación y muestras los datos sobre variables de control de la embarcación. Los resultados obtenidos muestran diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre el grupo de mujeres y hombres sobre la velocidad de la embarcación(p =0,039), distancia navegada (p <0,001) y hiking (p =0,002). Existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la potenciadel tren inferior pre y post test de fatiga. Esto no lleva a concluir que el simulador es una herramienta válida para valorar lafatiga de forma específica en regatistas de clase Ilca.(AU)

In sport sailing, there are three fundamental pillars of performance for dinghy sailors (physical condition, cognitive abilityand equipment). One of the decisive moments in a single-handed dinghy race is sailing upwind, as it requires a high physicaldemand from the sailors to keep the boat flat and make the best decisions according to the tactical conditions of the race.The objective of the research is (i) to analyze the performance of elite sailors on the hiking position in a dynamic virtual sailingsituation and (ii) to measure the lower body muscle fatigue in the hiking action. The sample consisted of 10 sailors from theIlca sailing class and belonging to the Olympic teams of the Norwegian, Mexican and Spanish national teams, 6 of themmen (Mage=31.67, SDage=6.861) and 4 women, (Mage=30.50, SDage=4.655). The fatigue protocol consisted of a static test and adynamic test of the sac body position. Both tests measure the sailors’ effort up to extreme fatigue or loss of position. The testwas performed on the vSail-Trainer® sailing simulator, which allows to reproduce real sailing conditions and displays data onboat control variables. The results obtained show statistically significant differences between the group of women and menon boat speed (P=0.039), distance sailed (P<0.001) and hiking effort (P=0.002). There are statistically significant differences inlower body power pre and post fatigue test. This does not lead to the conclusion that the simulator is a valid tool to assessfatigue specifically in Ilca class sailors.(AU)

A Narrative Analysis of the Progression in the Top 100 Marathon, Half-Marathon, and 10-km Road Race Times from 2001 to 2019.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to characterize and describe finishing time trends of the fastest 100 performers in the men's and women's marathon, half-marathon, and road 10-km each year from 2001 to 2019 and assess the underlying basis for recent performance improvements. METHODS: The top 100 performers for each sex, event, and year were partitioned into four arbitrary ranking groups: 1-10, 11-25, 26-50, and 51-100. The percent improvement in mean performance time for each year beyond 2001 was calculated for each ranking group, event, and sex. Multiple linear regression was also used to determine improvement trend for each ranking group, both sexes, and all events for each 3-yr period between Olympic years. RESULTS: In total, 11,400 performances in the marathon, half-marathon, and 10-km road races from 2001 to 2019 were analyzed. The 3-yr period preceding the original date of the Tokyo Olympics (2017-2019) accounted for 44% and 35% of the overall improvement in marathon time from 2001 to 2019 for women and men, respectively. The years 2017-2019 featured the largest average improvement of any 3-yr period and was the only period where nearly every ranking group in every event for both sexes improved. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that recent world record performances are a result of overall circumstances affecting road racing (e.g., shoe technology) rather than the outstanding physiology of individual top runners, per se.

Excelência no Handebol: o processo de desenvolvimento esportivo de atletas brasileiras campeãs do mundo / La excelencia en balonmano: el proceso de desarrollo deportivo de los atletas brasileños campeones del mundo / Handball excellence: the sport development process of world champion Brazilian athletes

O objetivo do estudo foi analisar o processo de desenvolvimento da carreira esportiva de atle-tas brasileiras campeãs do mundo de handebol. Estudo retrospectivo com foco nos principais episódios da iniciação ao esporte elite, na perspectiva das sete atletas. Os dados foram coleta-dos através de entrevistas semiestruturadas individuais, e analisados pelo método da Análise Temática. Os resultados revelam que a carreira das atletas foi marcada por: iniciação diversifi-cada no esporte; aumento de prática deliberada durante os anos de especialização; avanço precoce e rápido para os anos de investimento esportivo. Transições normativas e não normati-vas também foram identificadas, sendo mais evidentes a partir da transição para o esporte de elite. Além disso, o processo de desenvolvimento das atletas foi assistemático, expresso pela falta de organização e planejamento por parte de órgãos responsáveis pelo fomento da prática do handebol. Sendo o contexto escolar, um ambiente significativo para promover o acesso ini-cial ao handebol. (AU)

The objective was to analyze the development process of the sports career of Brazilian ath-letes who are handball world champions. A retrospective study was carried out with seven athletes, focusing onthe main episodes of the sports career, from initiation to elite sport. Da-ta were collected through individual semi-structured interviews and was analyzed using the Thematic Analysis method. The results revealed that the athletes’ careers were marked by: diversified initiation in the sport; increase in deliberate practice during the years of speciali-zation; early and rapid advance into the years of sports investment. Normative and non-normative transitions were also identified, being more evident from the transition to elite sport. In addition, the athletes’ development process was unsystematic, expressed by the lack of organization and planning by the bodies responsible for promoting handball practice. The school context represents a significant environment to promote access to handball. (AU)

Evaluating the probable effects of the COVID-19 epidemic detraining on athletes’ physiological traits and performance

The existing Coronavirus disease (COVID-19 outbreak has become the chief health concern all over the world. This universal epidemic with high morbidity and mortality rate affected the sports world as well as other fields of human life. In this situation, the routine and professional training of soccer players has been canceled. alterations in the training features including frequency, volume, and intensity might result in fitness detraining which will definitely have unpleasant effects on their professional life, including alterations in their physiological traits and performance.The purpose of the current study is to shed light on the probable effects of the COVID-19 epidemic detraining on athletes, in order to persuade coaches and athletes pay more attention to detraining unpleasant effects and make appropriate decisions, and employ effective strategies to reduce and prevent these effects and return to full fitness. (AU)

Participation and Performance in the Oldest Ultramarathon-Comrades Marathon 1921-2019.

Participation and performance trends have been analyzed for different ultramarathons for limited time periods. This study examined trends in participation and performance in the oldest ultramarathon in the world, the 'Comrades Marathon' (South Africa), during a century (1921-2019). Data from www.ultra-marathon.org on 100 000 unique finishers were analysed using different general linear models. Women represented 4.2% of the total sample (n=4152), and the first women ran this race in 1978. Before the year 1965, the number of participants in the race ranged between 5 and 35 athletes, then started to grow exponentially until mid 90's. An increase in finishers in the 70 s mainly due to an increase in male athletes in age groups 30-39, 40-49 and 50-59 years was observed (p<0.001). A stable running speed for overall women and men but an improvement in performance for the annual top five women and men were shown (p<0.001). Male runners were faster than female runners for all age groups (p<0.001). While overall performance was not improved across years, the annual top five women and men were able to improve their performance over years.

The influence of service quality on satisfaction and behavioral intentions of football spectators: a study in Pernambuco football / A influência da qualidade de serviços na satisfação e nas intenções comportamentais de espectadores do futebol: um estudo no futebol Pernambucano

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to examine the influence of service quality perception on spectators' satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the Pernambuco Professional Football Championship of 2017 - Brazil. Data were collected on match days, using an adapted questionnaire, consisting of four variables. The sample was composed of spectators at the competition, divided into two moments (1st. n = 386 / 2nd. n = 620). The data were analyzed through two-step structural equation modeling in AMOS 24. After the refinement of the model, the results of the structural model [χ² (314) = 762.849 (p <.001) χ² / df = 2.42; GFI = .92; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .05] indicated that the players' performance positively influenced both satisfaction (β = .76, p <.001) and behavioral intentions (β = .33, p <.001). In turn, the crowd experience had a positive influence only on the spectators' behavioral intentions (β = .38, p <.001). It is concluded that provision of service quality, positively evaluated by the spectators, especially in relation to the aspects of the game/players, is a way for the club to satisfy them and generate positive behavioral intentions.

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar a influência da percepção da qualidade do serviço na satisfação e nas intenções comportamentais dos espectadores do Campeonato de Futebol Profissional de Pernambuco de 2017 - Brasil. Os dados foram coletados em dia de jogos, a partir de um questionário adaptado, composto por quatro variáveis. A amostra foi composta por espectadores da competição, dividida em dois momentos (1º. n=386 / 2º. n= 620). Os dados foram analisados através da análise de equações estruturais de duas etapas no AMOS 24. Após o refinamento do modelo, os resultados do modelo estrutural [χ² (314) = 762,849 (p < .001) χ²/df = 2,42; GFI = .92; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .05] indicaram que a performance dos jogadores influenciou positivamente tanto a satisfação (β = .76, p < .001) quanto as intenções comportamentais (β = .33, p < .001). Por sua vez, a experiência como torcedor influenciou de forma positiva unicamente as intenções comportamentais dos espectadores (β = .38, p < .001). Conclui-se que para o clube prestar um serviço de qualidade, bem avaliado por parte dos espectadores, principalmente em relação aos aspectos do jogo/jogadores é um caminho para satisfazê-los e gerar intenções comportamentais positivas.

Changes in technique throughout a 1500-m speed skating time-trial in junior elite athletes: Differences between sexes, performance levels and competitive seasons.

Speed skating is a technical endurance sport. Still, little is known about technical changes in junior speed skaters. Therefore, changes in technique throughout a 1500-m time-trial of elite junior speed skaters is investigated to explore differences between sexes, performance levels and competitive seasons. At (inter)national 1500-m competitions, knee and push-off angles were obtained for 120 elite junior speed skaters (56 female, 64 male, age 17.6±1.1 years) per lap at 250m (lap 1), 650m (lap 2), 1050m (lap 3) and 1450m (lap 4). Additionally, 1500m end-times and lap-times were obtained to divide skaters in faster and slower performance groups and to analyze pacing behavior. Fifteen skaters (8 female, 7 male, age 17.3±1.5 years) were measured again after 1.6±0.6 years. (Repeated measures) ANOVAs were used for statistical analyses (p<0.05). ICC, determined in a pilot study, was 0.55 for knee and 0.76 for push-off angles. Elite junior speed skaters increased their knee angles throughout the race (p<0.005), regardless of sex (p = 0.110) or performance level (p = 0.714). Push-off angles increased from lap 1-3 (p<0.001), in which men showed a larger decay than female skaters (p<0.05), this holds for both performance groups (p = 0.103). Faster skaters had smaller knee and push-off angles than slower skaters (p<0.05). Males showed smaller body angles than females (p<0.001). Faster male and female skaters showed a relative slower start and faster lap 3 compared to slower skaters (p<0.05). Development over competitive seasons showed a shift towards smaller push-off angles (p = 0.038) and less decay in knee angles from lap 2-3 (p = 0.026). The present study shows that technique throughout the 1500m deteriorates. Deterioration in technique is regardless of performance level, even with different pacing behaviors. Differences between sexes were found for push-off angles. The longitudinal development suggests changes in technique towards senior level and highlights the importance of studying juniors separate from seniors.

Longitudinal Performance Analysis in Ultra-Triathlon of the World's 2 Best Master Triathletes.

PURPOSE: To analyze the performances of 2 ultra-triathletes who competed in ultra-triathlon events (double Iron ultra-triathlon and triple Iron ultra-triathlon) for the past 3 decades. Longitudinal data of the performance development in ultra-triathlon athletes spanning many years are rare. Prediction of age-related performance declines in the different disciplines in triathlon events (swimming, cycling, and running) are needed for race directors to set realistic goals (time limits) for master athletes in these events. METHODS: Athletes A and B had 34 and 53 participations in double Iron at 35-55 and 40-69 y of age, respectively, and 26 and 20 participations in triple Iron at 33-51 and 40-61 y of age, respectively. Nonlinear regression analyses were performed with split and overall performance against age. RESULTS: The average declines in performance in triple Iron ultra-triathlon for athlete A were 0.62%/y, 0.19%/y, and 0.98%/y for swimming, cycling, and running, respectively. For athlete B, a positive change was identified for swimming (0.19%/y) and cycling (1.12%/y) but negative change for running (1.34%/y). CONCLUSION: Running is the discipline with the greatest performance-decline rate for both athletes, in both double and triple Iron distances. The race time limit of double Iron competitions seems too short, making it difficult for master athletes older than 55 y to finish the race within the event regulations.

Age-related participation and performance trends of children and adolescents in ultramarathon running.

Participation and performance trends as well as the performance differences among sexes in ultra-endurance running have been well described in the adult population; however, less information on such trends existed in youth ultramarathoners. The aim of the present study was to investigate the age-related participation and performance trends of children and adolescent ultramarathoner runners. Data on runners, younger than 19 years of age, competing from 1960 to 2018 in distance-limited ultramarathons of 50 km, 100 km, 50 miles and 100 miles, were analysed. During this period, the number of ultramarathon participation increased, most notably among boys, most runners originated from Europe, and the 50- and 100-km race distances were the most popular. Overall, male runners were faster than female runners, except in the case of European and Oceanian origin, where girls were faster over the 50-km race. The fastest male runners originated from Africa and the fastest girls from Oceania, and the average running speed has largely decreased for both sexes over calendar years. In summary, this study was the first to report details on participation and performance trends in youth ultramarathoners competing in distance-limited ultramarathons.

Combine performance, draft position and playing position are poor predictors of player career outcomes in the Australian Football League.

Physical testing-based draft combines are undertaken across various sporting codes to inform talent selection. To determine the explanatory power of the Australian football league (AFL) draft combine, participants drafted between 1999-2016 (n = 1488) were assessed. Testing performance, draft selection order and playing position, AFL matches played, AFL player ranking points and AFL player rating points were collected as career outcomes. Boosted regression tree analysis revealed that position and draft selection order were the most explanatory variables of career outcomes. Linear modelling based on testing results is able to explain 4% of matches played and 3% of in-game performance measures. Each individual combine test explained <2% of the matches played outcome. Draft selection order demonstrated mixed results for career outcomes relative to playing position. For instance, key forwards and draft selection order were observed as a slight negative relationship using the AFL Player Ranking points career outcome measure. These findings indicate that the AFL draft combine is a poor measure for informing talent selection, thus providing minimal utility for the practices investigated in this study.

Do changes in middle-distance running kinematics contribute to the age-related decline in performance?

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess ageing-related changes in middle-distance running kinematics and performance in master athletes. METHODS: Male athletes (n=157; 57±13.3 years) competing in the 800- and 1500-m runs at the German Master Athletics Outdoor Championships 2018 were filmed and the bending-over angle, brake angle, leg-stiffness angle, propulsion angle and hip-flexion angle measured. RESULTS: Leg-stiffness and propulsion angle decreased with age (all p<.001), while bending-over, brake and hip-flexion angle increased (all p<.001). Bending-over, propulsion and hip-flexion angles were smaller in 800- than 1500-m races, while the brake angle was larger in 800- than 1500-m races (all p<.001), with no significant difference in leg-stiffness angle between disciplines. In the last round, hip flexion was lower compared to earlier rounds in both distances (p<.001). Age was the major predictor for performance in both races (800-m Radj2=0.74; p<.001, 1500-m Radj2=0.80; p<.001), with a minor impact of technique (improved Radj2 to 0.84 and 0.86, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that the ageing-related decline in running performance of master athletes was primarily explicable by age with only a small contribution of changes in sprint kinematics.

Ultra-triathlon-Pacing, performance trends, the role of nationality, and sex differences in finishers and non-finishers.

Ultra-triathlons are defined as triathlons longer than the traditional Ironman distance and became more popular in the last two decades; however, scarce scientific evidence of these events are available. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of performance, pacing, nationality, sex differences, and rate of non-finishers in ultra-triathlons. Data from 1985 to 2018 were collected including Double Iron, Triple Iron, Quintuple Iron, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons. Different pacing patterns by event and sex were observed (P < .05); athletes spent less %time in swimming and cycling, and more %time in running as the distance of event was longer; women spent more %time in cycling and less% time in running in Double and Triple. Performance analysis showed a negative trend over time for men and women since 1985. Switzerland, France, and Germany were the fastest nations in ultra-triathlons. The frequency of North Americans competing in Europe was very low (<5%), whereas Europeans often competed in North America (~25%). The rate of non-finishers between sexes was similar in all races with the exception of Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, which was much greater (~20%) for women. Non-finishers had slower race times in swimming and cycling splits than finishers. In conclusion, ultra-triathletes should redistribute their energy among swimming, cycling, and running depending on their sex and distance of race. Performance in ultra-triathlons has been decreasing in men and women over the years, but sex difference in performance remained. Europeans were the fastest ultra-triathletes and compete in Europe and North America. Additionally, non-finishers were slower swimmers and cyclists than finishers.

Multigenerational performance development of male and female top-elite swimmers-A global study of the 100 m freestyle event.

BACKGROUND: The present study investigated longitudinally the performance development of a multigenerational sample of competitive swimmers. The aim of the study was to provide unique insight into the junior toward senior performance development of those few who reached top-elite level. Season Best Times (SBT) of 100 m freestyle performance of international swimmers, (1.305 males, aged 12-26 and 1.841 females, aged 12-24) competing in at least five seasons between 1993 and 2018, were corrected for the prevailing world record (WR). Swim performance was defined as a relative measure: relative Season Best Time=(SBT/WR) × 100. Based on rSBT, four performance groups were defined: top-elite, elite, sub-elite, and high-competitive. RESULTS: Univariate analyses of variance showed that male top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive swimmers from the age of 12, sub-elite swimmers from the age of 14 and elite swimmers from the age of 18 while female top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive and sub-elite swimmers from the age of 12 and elite swimmers from the age of 14 (P < .05). Frequency analysis showed that male top-elite swimmers for the first time achieved top-elite level between the 17 and 24 years old (mean age of 21) while female top-elite swimmers started to perform at top-elite level between the 14 and 24 years old (mean age of 18). CONCLUSION: Male and female top-elite swimmers are characterized by a high-performance level from 12 years on and progressively outperform swimmers from similar age. However, this goes together with a large variety in the individual pathways toward top-elite level within and between sexes.

Changes in performance markers and wellbeing in elite senior professional rugby union players during a pre-season period: Analysis of the differences across training phases.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the magnitude of change and association with variation in training load of two performance markers and wellbeing, over three pre-season training blocks, in elite rugby union athletes. DESIGN: Observational. METHODS: Twenty-two professional players (age 25±5 years; training age 6±5 years; body mass, 99±13kg; stature 186±6cm) participated in this study, with changes in lower (CMJ height) and upper body (bench press mean speed) neuromuscular function and self-reported wellbeing (WB) assessed during an 11-week period. RESULTS: There was a small increase in CMJ height (0.27, ±0.17 - likely substantial; standardised effect size, ±95% confidence limits - magnitude-based inference) (p=0.003), bench press speed (0.26, ±0.15 - likely substantial) (p=0.001) and WB (0.26, ±0.12 - possibly substantial) (p<0.0001) across the pre-season period. There was a substantial interaction in the effect of training load on these three variables across the three training phases. A two-standard deviation (2SD) change in training load was associated with: a small decrease in CMJ height during the power phase (-0.32, ±0.19 - likely substantial) (p=0.001); a small reduction in bench press speed during the hypertrophy phase (-0.40, ±0.32 - likely substantial) (p=0.02); and a small reduction in WB during the strength phase (-0.40, ±0.24 - very likely substantial) (p<0.0001). The effects of changes in training load across other phases were either likely trivial, only possibly substantial, or unclear. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of training load on performance can vary both according to the type of training stimulus being administered and based on whether upper- or lower-body outcomes are being measured.

Performance Differences Between the Sexes in the Boston Marathon From 1972 to 2017.

Knechtle, B, Di Gangi, S, Rüst, CA, and Nikolaidis, PT. Performance differences between the sexes in the Boston Marathon from 1972 to 2017. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 566-576, 2020-The differences between the sexes in marathon running have been investigated for athletes competing in world class-level races. However, no information exists about changes in these differences since the first women officially began participating in marathons. We examined trends in participation and performance in the Boston Marathon from 1972 to 2017. A total of 371,250 different finishers (64% men) and 553,890 observations-with 187,998 (34%) being of women and 365,892 (66%) of men-were analyzed using Generalized Additive Mixed Models. The number of finishers increased over the years. Female participation started at 2.81% in 1972 and reached 45.68% in 2016. Considering all finishers, men (03:38:42 ± 00:41:43 h:min:s) were overall faster than women (04:03:28 ± 00:38:32 h:min:s) by 10.7%. Average performance worsened over the years, but the differences between the sexes decreased. For the annual 10 fastest runners, performance improved with a decrease in speed difference (18.3% overall, men: 02:13:30 ± 00:04:08 h:min:s vs. women: 02:37:42 ± 00:17:58 h:min:s). For the annual winners, performance improved with a decrease in speed difference (15.5% overall, men: 02:10:24 ± 00:03:05 h:min:s vs. women: 02:30:43 ± 00:11:05 h:min:s). For the near-elite finishers from the 21st to the 100th place and from the 101st to the 200th place, women's performance improved with a decrease in the difference to men. In summary, the trend in performance over the years depended on the methodological approach (i.e., all vs. annual 10 fastest finishers vs. annual winners), but the difference between the sexes decreased in all instances. Although men were 10.7% faster than women, the fastest men (i.e., top 10 and winners) increased the gap between men and women by an average of 18.3% for the annual 10 fastest and 15.5% for the annual winners.

A Comparison of the National Football League's Annual National Football League Combine 1999-2000 to 2015-2016.

Fitzgerald, CF and Jensen, RL. A Comparison of the National Football League's annual National Football League combine 1999-2000 to 2015-2016. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 771-781, 2020-The purpose of this study was to determine if elite football players are becoming bigger, faster, and stronger over the past decade by analyzing individual performances at the National Football League's (NFL) Combine. This study was conducted with (N = 1,263) subjects from the 1999-2000 (99-00) NFL Combines (n = 635) and the 2015-2016 (15-16) NFL Combines (n = 628) separated by position. Data were collected for height, body mass, 40-yd (36.58 m) dash, NFL 225 lb. (102.06 kg) repetitions test, vertical jump (VJ), broad jump (BJ), pro-agility shuttle, and 3-cone drill. Statistical significance between the years for all subjects participating in the NFL Combine was found for the 40-yd dash (99-00: mean ± SD = 4.85 ± 3.2; 15-16: 4.80 ± 3.5; p = 0.002) and VJ (99-00 = 82.04 ± 10.36 and 83.46 ± 10.59; p = 0.028) at the alpha p < 0.05 level. Statistical significance was also found for BJ (99-00 = 111.37 ± 8.81; 15-16: 115.03 ± 9.22; p < 0.001) and the 3-cone drill (99-00 = 7.41 ± 0.42; 15-16: 7.29 ± 4.1; p < 0.001) at the alpha p < 0.001 level. There were no statistically significant findings (p > 0.05) for mass or height found across all subjects by combine years. Results indicate that elite football players have improved their performance, when comparing results from 1999-2000 to 2015-2016. These finding may be beneficial to NFL franchises in their prospective player assessments.

The "New York City Marathon": participation and performance trends of 1.2M runners during half-century.

The aim of the present study was to examine trends in participation, performance, age and nationality during a ~ 50-years period in the largest dataset ever studied in the "New York City Marathon". We analysed 1,174,331 finishers (women, n= 349,145, age 39.7 ± 8.7 years; men, n= 825,186, 41.7 ± 9.2 years). The overall participation increased across calendar years for all nationalities, and this increase was more pronounced in women, which resulted in a decreasing men-to-women ratio. Men were faster and older than women. Ethiopians and Kenyans were the fastest and youngest in women and men, respectively. Japanese were the slowest and Germans were the oldest in both sexes. Race time increased across years. Coaches and fitness trainers should be aware of these trends and should emphasize the development of training programs for older and slower runners.

Is there any difference between "amateur" and "recreational" runners? A latent class analysis

Abstract Aims: to identify and describe the clustering of characteristics related to running amongst Brazilian runners using latent class analysis and to verify if there is a profile associated with better performance. Material and Methods: a sample of 1149 Brazilian runners answered an online questionnaire, that provided information about biological (sex, age, height, weight), training (running pace, frequency and volume/week, motivation), and socioeconomic factors, as well as a multidimensional questionnaire of fear of failure. Latent Class Analysis was used to identify subgroups of Brazilian runners, based on BMI, training volume and frequency/week, motivation, socioeconomic factors, and the fear of failure. Further, a χ2 test was computed to verify statistical differences in the frequency of the descriptive variables between classes. Finally, binary logistic regression analysis estimated factors associated with running performance, with running pace as the dependent variable. Results: It was possible to identify two different classes among Brazilian runners, which were called "amateur runners" and "recreational runners". Variables that highlighted classes' differences were: volume and frequency training/week, motivation for the practice, and BMI. Regarding the running performance, logistic regression analysis showed that men (OR=5.39; 95%CI=4.00-7.25), young runners (OR=0.38; 95%CI=0.28-0.51), and "amateur runners" (OR=4.19; 95%CI=2.95-5.94) were more prone to have higher performance. Conclusion: Two distinct classes were found among Brazilian runners that were linked to their performance, highlighting that even among non-professional runners, differences can be observed regarding their classification. Hence, future studies should consider using these classes to properly stratify or identify non-professional runners.

Hidden dynamics of soccer leagues: The predictive 'power' of partial standings.

OBJECTIVES: Soccer leagues reflect the partial standings of the teams involved after each round of competition. However, the ability of partial league standings to predict end-of-season position has largely been ignored. Here we analyze historical partial standings from English soccer to understand the mathematics underpinning league performance and evaluate the predictive 'power' of partial standings. METHODS: Match data (1995-2017) from the four senior English leagues was analyzed, together with random match scores generated for hypothetical leagues of equivalent size. For each season the partial standings were computed and Kendall's normalized tau-distance and Spearman r-values determined. Best-fit power-law and logarithmic functions were applied to the respective tau-distance and Spearman curves, with the 'goodness-of-fit' assessed using the R2 value. The predictive ability of the partial standings was evaluated by computing the transition probabilities between the standings at rounds 10, 20 and 30 and the final end-of-season standings for the 22 seasons. The impact of reordering match fixtures was also evaluated. RESULTS: All four English leagues behaved similarly, irrespective of the teams involved, with the tau-distance conforming closely to a power law (R2>0.80) and the Spearman r-value obeying a logarithmic function (R2>0.87). The randomized leagues also conformed to a power-law, but had a different shape. In the English leagues, team position relative to end-of-season standing became 'fixed' much earlier in the season than was the case with the randomized leagues. In the Premier League, 76.9% of the variance in the final standings was explained by round-10, 87.0% by round-20, and 93.9% by round-30. Reordering of match fixtures appeared to alter the shape of the tau-distance curves. CONCLUSIONS: All soccer leagues appear to conform to mathematical laws, which constrain the league standings as the season progresses. This means that partial standings can be used to predict end-of-season league position with reasonable accuracy.

Lumbrical Tear in Major League Baseball Player Throwing 4-Seam Fastballs: A Case Report.

CASE: We present the case of a major league pitcher with persistent finger pain, loss of pitch control, and loss of pitch velocity after an injury during a game. This pitcher only throws fastballs and prefers to only use a 4-seam technique. On examination of the affected hand, it is found that he had tenderness along the palmar iinterosseous near the base of the third metacarpal and no tenderness along the distribution of the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) tendon. The patient had full range of motion of the third digit. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed partial thickness tears of the second and third lumbricals. DISCUSSION: Proposed injury was secondary to the 4-seam fastball technique, which pulls apart the FDP of the second and third digit, as well as the FDP of third and fourth digit. This increases the distance between the origins of the second and third lumbricals, leading to strain and tearing. The increased pitch count of the player also may have contributed to the injury. After rest and gradual tossing program, the pitcher was able to return to a preinjury level of function at 6 weeks. One year out from injury, the patient continued to pitch and remained pain free.